29 de abr. de 2008

Grammar Book 2

positive - comparative- superlative

A - Comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) adjectives with one syllable

clean
cleaner
cleanest
new
newer
newest
cheap
cheaper
cheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

dirty
dirtier
dirtiest
easy
easier
easiest
happy
happier
happiest
pretty
prettier
prettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

clever
cleverer
cleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

simple
simpler
simplest

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

narrow
narrower
narrowest

Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

large
larger
largest

Leave out the silent -e

big
bigger
biggest

Double the consonant after short vowel

sad
sadder
saddest
dirty
dirtier
dirtiest

Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)

shy
shyer
shyest

Here -y is not changed to -i.(although consonant before -y)

B - Comparison with more - most

difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see 2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

C - Irregular adjectives

good
better
best

bad
worse
worst

much
more
most

uncountable nouns

many
more
most

countable nouns

little
less
least

little
smaller
smallest

D - Special adjectives

Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison.

common
commoner / more common
commonest / most common

likely
likelier / more likely
likeliest / most likely

pleasant
pleasanter / more pleasant
pleasantest / most pleasant

polite
politer / more polite
politest / most polite

simple
simpler / more simple
simplest / most simple

stupid
stupider / more stupid
stupidest / most stupid

subtle
subtler / more subtle
subtlest

sure
surer / more sure
surest / most sure

Difference in meaning with adjectives:

far

farther - farthest - distance
further - furthest - distance or time

late

later - latest

latter - x

x - last

old - older - oldest - people and things

elder - eldest - people (family)

near - nearer - nearest - distance

x -next - order

Exercises

Present Perfect - Use

1) Result of an action in the past is important in the present

I have cleaned my room.

2) Recently completed action

He has just played handball.

3) Action beginning in the past and still continuing

We have lived in Canada since 1986.

4) together with lately, recently, yet

I have been to London recently.

Signal words

just, yet, never, already, ever, so far, up to now, recently, since, for

Form

have/has + past participle

Examples

Affirmative sentences:

I have played football.I've played football.

You have played football.You've played football.

Negative sentences:

I have not played football.I've not played football.I haven't played football.
You have not played football.You've not played football.You haven't played football.

Questions:

Have I played football?
Have you played football?

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Present Perfect X Simple Past

PP - Result of an action in the past is important in the present

SP - Action finished in the past

PP- Recently completed actions

SP -series of completed actions in the past

PP - Actions beginning in the past and still continuing

SP - together with the Past Progressive/Continuous - The Simple Past interrupted an action which was in progress in the past.

PP- together with lately, recently, yet

2) Signal words

PP - just, yet, never, already, ever, so far, up to now, recently, since, for

SP- yesterday, last week, a month ago, in 2002

3) Form

PP - have/has + past participle

SP - regular verbs: infinitive + ed

irregular verbs:2nd column of the table of the irregular verbs

4) Examples

Affirmative sentences

I have played football.

I've played football.

I played football.

You have played football.

You've played football.

You played football.

He has played football.

He's played football.

He played football.

Negative sentences

I have not played football.

I've not played football.

I haven't played football.

I did not play football.

I didn't play football.


You have not played football.

You've not played football.

You haven't played football.

You did not play football.

You didn't play football.


He has not played football.

He's not played football.

He hasn't played football.

He did not play football.He didn't play football.

Questions

Have I played football?

Did I play football?

Have you played football?

Did you play football?

Has he played football?

Did he play football?

Exercises